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Some of the Strangest Old Testament Laws and What They Mean
This article is part of the Tough Passages series.
Laws That Sound Strange to Us
Many readers view a number of laws in the Pentateuch as obscure, strange, and sometimes impossible to understand. Specialized vocabulary and ritualistic concepts make them difficult to translate for the ears of modern readers. However, we must take great care to read each law within its given context instead of ignoring or reading our own mindset into the text. Get clarity on some of these laws from Biblical scholars who have dedicated their lives to discerning their meaning. All content is adapted from the ESV Expository Commentary.
“You shall not boil a young goat in its mother’s milk.” —Ex. 23:19b
Exodus 23:19b relates to the Lord’s proper worship. Boiling appears to have been a common way to prepare sacrificial meat (Lev. 6:28–29; 1 Sam. 2:13; Zech. 14:21), which would have been done during three festivals mentioned earlier in chapter 23: the Feast of Unleavened Bread, the Feast of Harvest, and the Feast of Ingathering. Why such meat should not be boiled in its mother’s milk is not explained. Many have suggested this is prohibiting the Israelites from imitating a pagan rite, though there is no clear evidence that such a rite was practiced by other nations.1 Since other verses imply that a level of respect and compassion should be shown with regard to the relationship between an animal and its offspring (cf. comment on 22:29–30), it should not surprise us if the same principle is at work here, the thought being that using a mother’s life-giving milk to prepare her dead offspring for consumption is uncaring at best and grotesque at worst. At our current state of knowledge this understanding is perhaps the most plausible, though it cannot be affirmed with certainty.
Contribution by Jay Sklar
Adapted from the ESV Expository Commentary: Genesis–Numbers (Volume 1)
ESV Expository Commentary
Four biblical scholars offer passage-by-passage commentary through the narratives of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers, explaining difficult doctrines, shedding light on overlooked sections, and making applications to life and ministry today. Part of the ESV Expository Commentary.
“You shall keep my statutes. You shall not let your cattle breed with a different kind. You shall not sow your field with two kinds of seed, nor shall you wear a garment of cloth made of two kinds of material.” —Lev. 19:19
A holy people must maintain the boundaries the Lord drew at creation by keeping species distinct in animal breeding, crop cultivation, and weaving, specifically in ways that might produce a hybrid. Some suggest these prohibitions might serve as a metaphor to forbid mingling with the nations in intermarriage, a topic the Pentateuch speaks to clearly elsewhere (Deut. 7:1–3).2
Upon closer look, such mixtures are found only in the sanctuary. Should a farmer sow two different types of seed, his crop becomes sacrosanct and must be dedicated to the sanctuary (Deut. 22:9).3 Blended fabrics of dyed wool interwoven with twined linen make up the sacral textiles of the tabernacle and priestly dress (Ex. 26:31; 28:6, 15). The Most Holy Place houses the throne of God, guarded by cherubim, creatures that elsewhere appear as part ox, eagle, and lion with a human face (Ezek. 1:5–11). Israel is prohibited from bringing sacred mixtures into secular life because they are relegated to holy space.
“When you come into the land and plant any kind of tree for food, then you shall regard its fruit as forbidden. Three years it shall be forbidden to you; it must not be eaten. And in the fourth year all its fruit shall be holy, an offering of praise to the LORD. But in the fifth year you may eat of its fruit, to increase its yield for you: I am the LORD your God.” —Lev. 19:23–25
Holy living reclaims the human vocation of care for God’s creation in Israel’s cultivation of the land. The people may not eat the fruit of newly planted fruit trees for the first three years because it is “forbidden” (lit., “uncircumcised”). The immature trees have not yet come of age in order for their harvest to be dedicated to the Lord. In the same way animals may be offered only after the eighth day, the same time frame as circumcision for Israelite boys (Gen. 17:12; Ex. 22:30). They must allow their orchards of olives, dates, figs, pomegranates, and almond trees to mature and become fully established. In the fourth year the Lord receives their praise (as firstfruits; Lev. 23:10–14), and only in the fifth year can their caretakers enjoy their yield. The circumcision imagery calls upon the Lord’s blessing and covenant promise of fruitfulness in all areas of life (Gen.1:22; 17:2, 6).
“You shall not eat any flesh with the blood in it. You shall not interpret omens or tell fortunes.” —Lev. 19:26
To remain in right standing with the Lord, under no circumstances may the covenant people eat meat with its blood, for to do so could lead to idolatry (Lev. 17:7, 10). In pagan rites the blood of a slain animal was manipulated to conjure spirits of the underworld. Israelites are forbidden from engaging in the occult and seeking omens, as is customarily done among their neighbors through reading the stars, inspecting an animal’s internal organs, observing the movement of birds, and the like (2 Kings 17:17; 21:6). The Lord expressly forbids ascribing power to false gods and impersonal forces that feign to foretell things to come. He alone knows the end from the beginning because he directs all human history to accomplish his will (Isa. 45:20–22).
“You shall not round off the hair on your temples or mar the edges of your beard.” —Lev. 19:27
Shaving the head and gashing the body are mourning rites that degraded the body (cf. Deut. 14:1). God’s people are holy, a theological identity worn on their bodies through wholeness and ritual purity. They are to leave the edges (Hb. peʾah) of their beards untrimmed, just as they leave the edges (peʾah) of their fields ungleaned (Lev. 19:9–10).
”The LORD spoke to Moses, saying, ‘Speak to the people of Israel and say to them, These are the appointed feasts of the LORD that you shall proclaim as holy convocations; they are my appointed feasts.’” —Lev. 23:1–2
Israel’s calendar for holy living revolves around the saving acts of God and the right response to his mercy.4 The Lord ordains a rhythm of sacred time that shapes Israel’s identity and makes her into a holy people. The calendar is set with “appointed times” (Hb. moʿed), language that picks up the idiom of creation. God fashioned the heavenly lights to serve “for signs and for seasons [moʿed; i.e.,appointed times], and for days and years” (Gen. 1:14). Creation itself is put to the service of marking out special times for the worship of the Creator. Seasonal feasts orient the nation toward the Lord and synchronize every Israelite to celebrate in community as well as in continuity with his forefathers. Israel’s present is lived out in light of God’s faithfulness in the past and his promises for the future.
The chapter’s arrangement shows that the year is divided into two halves. In the spring the first-month holy days include Passover, Unleavened Bread, and Firstfruits. In the fall the seventh-month holy days include Trumpets, Day of Atonement, and Booths. The two cycles of spring and fall festivals conclude with the declaration “I am the Lord your God” (Lev. 23:22, 43), structuring the chapter and signaling that sacred time is a revelation of the Lord. A closer look at the calendar reveals a subtle progression of redemptive themes: God as Creator (Lev. 23:1–3), God as Deliverer (Lev. 23:4–8), God as Sustainer (Lev. 23:9–22), God as Remember-er (Lev. 23:23–25), God as Forgiver (Lev. 23:26–32), and God as Ingatherer (Lev. 23:33–43). The festivals are an appointment to meet with the Lord and to know him in covenant relationship.
Contribution by Christine Palmer
Adapted from the ESV Expository Commentary: Genesis–Numbers (Volume 1)
ESV Expository Commentary
Four Old Testament scholars offer passage-by-passage commentary through the books of Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, and Ruth, explaining difficult doctrines, shedding light on overlooked sections, and making applications to life and ministry today. Part of the ESV Expository Commentary.
“You shall make yourself tassels on the four corners of the garment with which you cover yourself.” —Deut. 22:12
The requirement to wear tassels on the corners of a garment is related to the commands concerning the mixing of linen and wool in garments. The requirement is elaborated in Numbers 15:37–40, where its purpose is set out by a series of verbs: “look,” “remember,” and “do.” These summarize the pedagogic technique of the ritual system of the Torah. Sight (sensual perception) combined with memory (intellectual apprehension) translates into proper action (good deeds). The reason the tassel serves this end is explained by its composition. The tassels were also woven of wool and linen. Traditionally the tassel consists of four white threads, one of which is longer than the others. The threads are inserted into holes at the corners of the garment, folded over, and tied with a double knot. A violet or a blue purple cord is attached to the threads at each corner, forming a resemblance to the garments of the priest. Individual Israelites do not hold the status of a priest, but Israel is to be a nation of priests (Ex. 19:6). Remnants of white linen cords and dyed woolen cords were found in the Bar Kokhba caves, showing that this was the practice of the devoted during the final days of Jewish resistance against the Romans.
Tassels express a gradation of holiness analogous to that of the temple and its Most Holy Place, the Holy Place, the court, and then the camp. The fabric of the innermost part of the temple and of the high priest was a mix of brilliant white linen and blue-purple wool. Beyond the high priest, only the sashes of the other priests were woven this way. For ordinary Israelites, only the fringes of the garments may be made with linen and dyed wool. The tassel is the exception to the prohibition of any ordinary Israelite’s wearing cloth of a mixture of linen and wool. This is a constant reminder of the order of holiness in the world of the common and a testimony to the need for all Israel to strive for the highest level of holiness in living out the covenant life under the rule of their Most Holy Suzerain, who orders the common.
“When you make your neighbor a loan of any sort, you shall not go into his house to collect his pledge. You shall stand outside, and the man to whom you make the loan shall bring the pledge out to you. And if he is a poor man, you shall not sleep in his pledge. You shall restore to him the pledge as the sun sets, that he may sleep in his cloak and bless you. And it shall be righteousness for you before the LORD your God.” —Deut. 24:10–13
Money is always a contentious subject. Unpaid debts have always been a major problem for anyone engaging in commerce, even if it is simple peasant-level farming. Various kinds of pressure are used to collect on defaulted loans, including the confiscation of property. The stipulations of these verses set two limits on actions that can be taken to collect a loan. The first is that confiscation of property against a loan must be voluntary on the part of the debtor. The second is that the item confiscated must not endanger health or well-being. If a garment is used as a blanket at night, it must be returned each evening.
Two different terms are used for the giving of an item in pledge as security for a loan. In Deuteronomy 24:6, 17 the Hebrew term is habal; in Deuteronomy 24:10, 12 the term is ‘abat. The first term has the sense of seizing something as a pledge; the second refers to obtaining a deposit as collateral or making a loan against a deposit. The difference in the first case is that the pledge is taken after failure to pay the loan, while in the second the loan is made using a pledge as security. These are to be distinguished from ‘arab, which means to act as a guarantor of a loan for someone else. This is warned against in Proverbs repeatedly (e.g., Prov. 6:1; 11:15), as it carries the risk of total loss. One may be obligated to cover for a bad debt with no hope of any kind of recompense. The difference is comparable to the distinction between cosigning for the purchase of a property and acting as guarantor for a loan. In the case of cosigning, both parties hold title until the debt is fully paid. This provides a measure of collateral in case of default of payments.
“You shall not muzzle an ox when it is treading out the grain.” —Deut. 25:4
A labor-saving means of threshing (dwsh) wheat was to spread the grain on a rock and, with an ox, pull a weighted board fixed with iron or stones over the stalks (cf. the threshing sledge of Amos 1:3).
Animals doing draught work normally eat as they pull. The farmer might object because it distracts the animal from working, and in this case the ox would be consuming valuable crop. The ox will not be much interested in dried straw; it will be aiming to lick up the kernels. This is another of the Deuteronomic laws that demands the respect of animals as living creatures in the world of the common. As expressed in Proverbs 12:10, a righteous man understands the desires of an animal.
Contribution by August H. Konkel
Adapted from the ESV Expository Commentary: Genesis–Numbers (Volume 2)
Notes:
- Appeal has been made to a possible Ugaritic parallel (Cassuto, Commentary on the Book of Exodus, 305), but the meaning of the Ugaritic text cited in support is disputed (cf. extensive references in Alexander, Exodus, ApOTC, 525).
- Wenham, Leviticus, 269–270.
- The ESV translation of Deuteronomy 22:9 that the yield is “forfeited” indicates it is removed from common use and forfeited to the sanctuary. Cf. ESV mg. (“become holy”), which highlights how the Hebrew verb qadash regularly means “be/become holy” (HALOT, 1073). (Cf. LXX, which renders as hagiazō [“sanctified”].)
- In the Pentateuch are several other iterations of the calendar, each with a certain focus depending on its context. Exodus 23:14–17 and 34:18–26 emphasize the pilgrimage festivals, Numbers 28–29 enumerates the offerings for each festival, while Deuteronomy 16:1–17 considers celebrations from the perspective of the community and highlights the centrality of the sanctuary. Leviticus 23 treats Israel’s celebrations from the perspective of holy time.
This article is adapted from ESV Expository Commentary: Genesis–Numbers (Volume 1) and ESV Expository Commentary: Deuteronomy–Ruth(Volume 2) edited by Iain M. Duguid, James M. Hamilton Jr., and Jay Sklar.
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